Aeschylus ( 523-456 BC)

> Aeschylus is called as "The Father of Tragedy"

> He was an ancient Greek Tragedian.

> Only seven out of 70-90 plays survived.These seven tragedies are: - 

1) "The Persians" (472 BC) 

2) "Seven Against Thebes (472 BC)

3) "The Suppliants" (463 BC)

4)"Orestia " Trilogy 

5) "Prometheus Bound"(authorship is disputed) 

> Orestia trilogy consists of three tragedies: "Agamemnon", "The Libation Bearers" and "The Eumenides" , this trilogy depicts the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon, King of Argos.

> Among his plays "Prometheus Bound" is very much disputed. Some critics believes that it was written by his son Euphorion.

> The contemporary events and useful source of information about his period is found in the play "The Persians ".

The informations  given here are very useful to the aspirants of NET, SET ,JRF, WBPSC Assistant Master and Mistress  and literature students.

 Here are multiple-choice questions (MCQs) with answers based on The Age of Chaucer:

1. Which period is known as "The Age of Chaucer"?

A) 1066–1200
B) 1340–1400
C) 1500–1600
D) 1660–1700

Answer: B) 1340–1400

2. Who is considered the "Father of English Poetry"?

A) William Langland
B) Geoffrey Chaucer
C) John Gower
D) Edmund Spenser

Answer: B) Geoffrey Chaucer

3. What is Geoffrey Chaucer’s most famous work?

A) Piers Plowman
B) The Canterbury Tales
C) Troilus and Criseyde
D) Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Answer: B) The Canterbury Tales

4. What is the structure of The Canterbury Tales?

A) A series of interrelated sonnets
B) A collection of stories told by pilgrims
C) A single long narrative poem
D) A collection of elegies

Answer: B) A collection of stories told by pilgrims

5. How many tales were intended to be included in The Canterbury Tales?

A) 24
B) 30
C) 120
D) 50

Answer: C) 120

6. What is the setting for the storytelling in The Canterbury Tales?

A) A royal court
B) A pilgrimage to Canterbury
C) A medieval market square
D) A monastery

Answer: B) A pilgrimage to Canterbury

7. Which of the following is NOT a work by Geoffrey Chaucer?

A) The House of Fame
B) Confessio Amantis
C) Troilus and Criseyde
D) The Book of the Duchess

Answer: B) Confessio Amantis (It was written by John Gower)

8. Who is the host of the storytelling contest in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The Knight
B) Harry Bailey
C) The Friar
D) The Pardoner

Answer: B) Harry Bailey

9. What is the main theme of The Pardoner’s Tale in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The futility of war
B) The dangers of greed
C) The value of friendship
D) The rewards of love

Answer: B) The dangers of greed

10. Which literary form did Chaucer primarily use in The Canterbury Tales?

A) Blank verse
B) Heroic couplets
C) Free verse
D) Prose

Answer: B) Heroic couplets

11. Who wrote Piers Plowman, a key contemporary work during the Age of Chaucer?

A) Geoffrey Chaucer
B) John Gower
C) William Langland
D) Edmund Spenser

Answer: C) William Langland

12. What is Troilus and Criseyde primarily about?

A) A tragic love story set during the Trojan War
B) A knight’s quest for glory
C) A critique of medieval chivalry
D) The life of saints

Answer: A) A tragic love story set during the Trojan War

13. Which social class does the Wife of Bath represent in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The clergy
B) The nobility
C) The merchant class
D) The peasantry

Answer: C) The merchant class

14. Which tale in The Canterbury Tales is often considered a critique of corruption in the Church?

A) The Knight’s Tale
B) The Miller’s Tale
C) The Pardoner’s Tale
D) The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

Answer: C) The Pardoner’s Tale

15. What language did Chaucer primarily write in?

A) Latin
B) Old English
C) Middle English
D) Norman French

Answer: C) Middle English

16. Which poetic work by Chaucer is a dream vision?

A) The Book of the Duchess
B) The Parliament of Fowls
C) Both A and B
D) None of the above

Answer: C) Both A and B

17. In The Canterbury Tales, which character is depicted as an ideal knightly figure?

A) The Squire
B) The Knight
C) The Monk
D) The Franklin

Answer: B) The Knight

18. What does Chaucer satirize in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The feudal system
B) Corruption in the Church
C) Hypocrisy in society
D) All of the above

Answer: D) All of the above

19. Which Chaucer work is an allegory about love and politics, featuring birds choosing their mates?

A) Troilus and Criseyde
B) The Parliament of Fowls
C) The House of Fame
D) The Legend of Good Women

Answer: B) The Parliament of Fowls

20. What does The Nun’s Priest’s Tale in The Canterbury Tales primarily satirize?

A) Love and marriage
B) Courtly manners
C) Vanity and flattery
D) Greed and corruption

Answer: C) Vanity and flattery

21. Geoffrey Chaucer held which government position during his lifetime?

A) Poet Laureate
B) Comptroller of Customs
C) Member of Parliament
D) Chancellor of the Exchequer

Answer: B) Comptroller of Customs

22. Which of these historical events influenced Chaucer’s writing?

A) The Norman Conquest
B) The Black Death
C) The Reformation
D) The Glorious Revolution

Answer: B) The Black Death

23. What is the structure of The Canterbury Tales based on?

A) A storytelling contest among pilgrims
B) A single narrative about a journey
C) A collection of letters
D) A moral allegory

Answer: A) A storytelling contest among pilgrims

24. Which social institution does Chaucer criticize most in The Canterbury Tales?

A) Feudalism
B) The Church
C) The monarchy
D) The guilds

Answer: B) The Church

25. What is the Wife of Bath’s central argument in her tale?

A) The importance of wealth
B) The value of love and faithfulness
C) The desire of women for sovereignty over their husbands
D) The corrupt nature of marriage

Answer: C) The desire of women for sovereignty over their husbands

26. What is the primary purpose of the pilgrimage in The Canterbury Tales?

A) To escape from war
B) To visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket
C) To attend a royal wedding
D) To celebrate Easter

Answer: B) To visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket

27. In which tale does the character Chanticleer appear?

A) The Nun’s Priest’s Tale
B) The Franklin’s Tale
C) The Pardoner’s Tale
D) The Reeve’s Tale

Answer: A) The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

28. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Chaucer’s writing style?

A) Use of heroic couplets
B) Satirical tone
C) Symbolic allegory
D) Unrhymed blank verse

Answer: D) Unrhymed blank verse

29. In The Miller’s Tale, what genre of story is used?

A) Courtly romance
B) Religious allegory
C) Fabliau
D) Epic

Answer: C) Fabliau

30. Who is the narrator in The Canterbury Tales?

A) Chaucer himself
B) The Knight
C) The Host
D) An unnamed scribe

Answer: A) Chaucer himself

31. In The Pardoner’s Tale, what do the three rioters seek?

A) Wealth
B) Death
C) Eternal life
D) Revenge

Answer: B) Death

32. Which of Chaucer’s works is a tribute to the memory of Blanche of Lancaster?

A) The Book of the Duchess
B) The House of Fame
C) The Parliament of Fowls
D) Troilus and Criseyde

Answer: A) The Book of the Duchess

33. What does the rooster Chanticleer dream about in The Nun’s Priest’s Tale?

A) A fox trying to kill him
B) A great battle
C) Winning a singing contest
D) Becoming king of the barnyard

Answer: A) A fox trying to kill him

34. Which tale in The Canterbury Tales is often considered the most tragic?

A) The Knight’s Tale
B) The Clerk’s Tale
C) The Pardoner’s Tale
D) The Wife of Bath’s Tale

Answer: B) The Clerk’s Tale

35. What was the main influence on Chaucer’s use of heroic couplets?

A) French court poetry
B) Italian epics like Dante’s Divine Comedy
C) Middle English ballads
D) Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse

Answer: A) French court poetry

36. Which social class does the character of the Plowman represent in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The nobility
B) The peasantry
C) The clergy
D) The merchant class

Answer: B) The peasantry

37. Which language heavily influenced Middle English during Chaucer’s time?

A) Latin
B) French
C) Old Norse
D) Greek

Answer: B) French

38. Who is the youngest pilgrim in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The Squire
B) The Clerk
C) The Prioress
D) The Manciple

Answer: A) The Squire

39. In The Knight’s Tale, who are the two knights who fall in love with Emily?

A) Palamon and Arcite
B) Troilus and Criseyde
C) Theseus and Emetrius
D) Arveragus and Aurelius

Answer: A) Palamon and Arcite

40. What does the Host propose to the pilgrims to make their journey more entertaining?

A) A singing contest
B) A storytelling competition
C) A debate on morality
D) A treasure hunt

Answer: B) A storytelling competition

41. What is the primary moral lesson in The Pardoner’s Tale?

A) Greed is the root of all evil
B) Honesty leads to salvation
C) True love conquers all
D) Knowledge is power

Answer: A) Greed is the root of all evil

42. Which tale features a talking eagle that carries the narrator to the heavens?

A) The Book of the Duchess
B) The Parliament of Fowls
C) The House of Fame
D) The Knight’s Tale

Answer: C) The House of Fame

43. What profession does the Franklin represent in The Canterbury Tales?

A) A wealthy landowner
B) A soldier
C) A merchant
D) A lawyer

Answer: A) A wealthy landowner

44. Who is considered Chaucer’s literary contemporary and author of Confessio Amantis?

A) William Langland
B) John Gower
C) Edmund Spenser
D) Thomas Malory

Answer: B) John Gower

45. In The Wife of Bath’s Tale, what does the knight learn women most desire?

A) Wealth
B) Beauty
C) Sovereignty in marriage
D) True love

Answer: C) Sovereignty in marriage

46. Which pilgrim in The Canterbury Tales is described as being chivalrous, honorable, and experienced in battle?

A) The Knight
B) The Squire
C) The Yeoman
D) The Franklin

Answer: A) The Knight

47. What is the significance of the Parliament of Fowls?

A) It reflects on themes of love and politics.
B) It satirizes the courtly love tradition.
C) It introduces Chaucer’s use of allegory.
D) All of the above.

Answer: D) All of the above

48. Which Chaucerian character is guilty of selling fake religious relics?

A) The Pardoner
B) The Summoner
C) The Friar
D) The Parson

Answer: A) The Pardoner

49. What literary technique is Chaucer most known for in The Canterbury Tales?

A) Allegory
B) Frame narrative
C) Soliloquy
D) Blank verse

Answer: B) Frame narrative

50. Which pilgrim is considered the ideal representative of the clergy in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The Pardoner
B) The Monk
C) The Parson
D) The Friar

Answer: C) The Parson

51. Geoffrey Chaucer was influenced by the works of which Italian poet?

A) Dante Alighieri
B) Petrarch
C) Giovanni Boccaccio
D) All of the above

Answer: D) All of the above

52. What historical event had a significant impact on Chaucer’s works, especially The Canterbury Tales?

A) The Hundred Years' War
B) The Black Death
C) The Peasants' Revolt (1381)
D) All of the above

Answer: D) All of the above

53. What role does irony play in The Canterbury Tales?

A) It highlights the nobility of the pilgrims.
B) It exposes the flaws and hypocrisies of various characters.
C) It downplays the importance of storytelling.
D) It glorifies the medieval Church.

Answer: B) It exposes the flaws and hypocrisies of various characters.

54. Who does the Prioress in The Canterbury Tales imitate in her behavior and manners?

A) A noblewoman
B) A devout nun
C) A merchant’s wife
D) A peasant

Answer: A) A noblewoman

55. What narrative device is central to the structure of The Canterbury Tales?

A) Allegory
B) Frame story
C) Dream vision
D) Stream of consciousness

Answer: B) Frame story

56. Which tale features the theme of patience and endurance in the face of trials?

A) The Wife of Bath’s Tale
B) The Clerk’s Tale
C) The Franklin’s Tale
D) The Knight’s Tale

Answer: B) The Clerk’s Tale

57. What is the significance of the Knight’s character in The Canterbury Tales?

A) He represents the ideal of chivalry and honor.
B) He satirizes the concept of knighthood.
C) He is a comical figure.
D) He represents the corruption of the nobility.

Answer: A) He represents the ideal of chivalry and honor.

58. In The Miller’s Tale, what genre is primarily parodied?

A) Courtly romance
B) Heroic epic
C) Religious allegory
D) Tragedy

Answer: A) Courtly romance

59. What do the pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales symbolize?

A) The diversity of 14th-century English society
B) The unity of the medieval Church
C) The flaws in feudalism
D) The nobility of storytelling

Answer: A) The diversity of 14th-century English society

60. Which pilgrim is described as having a gap-tooth and wearing fine scarlet stockings?

A) The Wife of Bath
B) The Prioress
C) The Nun
D) The Franklin

Answer: A) The Wife of Bath

61. Why is The General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales significant?

A) It sets the tone and introduces the characters.
B) It provides a detailed history of England.
C) It is a separate work of Chaucer’s philosophy.
D) It is written entirely in prose.

Answer: A) It sets the tone and introduces the characters.

62. Who is the most morally upright and selfless character in The Canterbury Tales?

A) The Parson
B) The Pardoner
C) The Friar
D) The Summoner

Answer: A) The Parson

63. What does the Cook’s Tale in The Canterbury Tales reflect?

A) A story of corruption and debauchery
B) A heroic quest
C) A tale of love and sacrifice
D) A moral lesson on generosity

Answer: A) A story of corruption and debauchery

64. Which pilgrim is described as "fat and personable" and loves hunting?

A) The Monk
B) The Friar
C) The Pardoner
D) The Franklin

Answer: A) The Monk

65. Which tale uses the moral “Radix malorum est cupiditas” (The root of evil is greed)?

A) The Pardoner’s Tale
B) The Wife of Bath’s Tale
C) The Miller’s Tale
D) The Reeve’s Tale

Answer: A) The Pardoner’s Tale

66. In The Knight’s Tale, who ultimately marries Emily?

A) Palamon
B) Arcite
C) Theseus
D) Arveragus

Answer: A) Palamon

67. Which pilgrim is known for selling indulgences and fake relics?

A) The Pardoner
B) The Summoner
C) The Friar
D) The Merchant

Answer: A) The Pardoner

68. Who is the youngest and most fashionable of the pilgrims?

A) The Squire
B) The Yeoman
C) The Merchant
D) The Manciple

Answer: A) The Squire

69. What was Chaucer’s profession before becoming a writer?

A) A lawyer
B) A soldier
C) A customs official
D) A merchant

Answer: C) A customs official

70. What is the underlying theme of The Wife of Bath’s Tale?

A) The power struggle between men and women in marriage
B) The importance of courtly love
C) The inevitability of fate
D) The significance of wealth in society

Answer: A) The power struggle between men and women in marriage

71. How does Chaucer’s use of Middle English impact The Canterbury Tales?

A) It made the work accessible to a wider audience.
B) It limited its readership to the clergy.
C) It emphasized Latin over vernacular English.
D) It mimicked Old English poetic forms.

Answer: A) It made the work accessible to a wider audience.

72. Which pilgrim is associated with astrology and the humors of medicine?

A) The Clerk
B) The Doctor
C) The Franklin
D) The Summoner

Answer: B) The Doctor

73. What significant literary innovation is attributed to Chaucer?

A) The use of heroic couplets in Middle English
B) The creation of allegorical poetry
C) The invention of the sonnet
D) The development of blank verse

Answer: A) The use of heroic couplets in Middle English

74. Which tale in The Canterbury Tales is a beast fable?

A) The Miller’s Tale
B) The Nun’s Priest’s Tale
C) The Clerk’s Tale
D) The Reeve’s Tale

Answer: B) The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

75. What is the main reason for the diversity of characters in The Canterbury Tales?

A) To showcase Chaucer’s understanding of different social classes
B) To focus exclusively on the nobility
C) To highlight the corruption of the peasantry
D) To critique the lack of social mobility

Answer: A) To showcase Chaucer’s understanding of different social classes

 Here are some multiple-choice questions (MCQs) with answers based on Old English Literature:

1. Who is considered the father of Old English poetry?

A) Geoffrey Chaucer
B) Caedmon
C) Alfred the Great
D) Bede

Answer: B) Caedmon

2. What is the primary theme of the epic poem Beowulf?

A) Love and Romance
B) The clash of religions
C) Heroism and the struggle between good and evil
D) The pursuit of knowledge

Answer: C) Heroism and the struggle between good and evil

3. Which of the following is the oldest surviving long poem in Old English?

A) Beowulf
B) The Wanderer
C) The Seafarer
D) The Dream of the Rood

Answer: A) Beowulf

4. Who wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, a key source for Old English history?

A) Alfred the Great
B) Bede
C) Cynewulf
D) Caedmon

Answer: B) Bede

5. The Old English epic Beowulf is set in which region?

A) Britain
B) Scandinavia
C) France
D) Germany

Answer: B) Scandinavia

6. What type of poem is The Dream of the Rood?

A) Elegy
B) Religious allegory
C) Heroic epic
D) Satire

Answer: B) Religious allegory

7. Which of these is a characteristic feature of Old English poetry?

A) Rhyming couplets
B) Blank verse
C) Alliteration
D) Free verse

Answer: C) Alliteration

8. What is the main focus of the Old English elegy The Wanderer?

A) A knight’s quest for love
B) Loss, exile, and the transience of life
C) A king’s journey to power
D) The celebration of nature

Answer: B) Loss, exile, and the transience of life

9. What are kennings in Old English poetry?

A) Short riddles
B) Poetic compound metaphors
C) Religious sermons
D) Historical chronicles

Answer: B) Poetic compound metaphors

10. Who was the first Old English poet known by name?

A) Cynewulf
B) Caedmon
C) Alfred the Great
D) Wulfstan

Answer: B) Caedmon

11. Which manuscript contains Beowulf?

A) The Cotton Vitellius A XV
B) The Exeter Book
C) The Vercelli Book
D) The Junius Manuscript

Answer: A) The Cotton Vitellius A XV

12. What is the tone of most Old English elegies?

A) Joyful
B) Reflective and melancholic
C) Romantic
D) Aggressive

Answer: B) Reflective and melancholic

13. Who was the king who encouraged the translation of Latin works into Old English?

A) Alfred the Great
B) Edward the Confessor
C) Harold II
D) Ethelred the Unready

Answer: A) Alfred the Great

14. What is The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle?

A) A collection of epic poems
B) A historical record of events in England
C) A religious treatise
D) A philosophical dialogue

Answer: B) A historical record of events in England

15. What language heavily influenced Old English vocabulary after the Viking invasions?

A) Latin
B) Old Norse
C) French
D) German

Answer: B) Old Norse

16. What is the subject of the poem The Battle of Maldon?

A) A Viking raid
B) A hero's journey
C) A battle between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings
D) The arrival of Christianity in England

Answer: C) A battle between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings

17. The Exeter Book is a major source of what type of Old English literature?

A) Religious sermons
B) Historical chronicles
C) Riddles and elegies
D) War poems

Answer: C) Riddles and elegies

18. What meter is commonly used in Old English poetry?

A) Iambic pentameter
B) Trochaic tetrameter
C) Four-stress alliterative verse
D) Heroic couplets

Answer: C) Four-stress alliterative verse

19. Which Old English poem personifies the Cross and its role in Christ’s crucifixion?

A) The Seafarer
B) The Dream of the Rood
C) The Wanderer
D) The Phoenix

Answer: B) The Dream of the Rood

20. What marks the end of the Old English period?

A) The Norman Conquest (1066)
B) The publication of Beowulf
C) The Viking invasions
D) The Christianization of England

Answer: A) The Norman Conquest (1066)

21. Which of the following is NOT one of the four major Old English poetic manuscripts?

A) The Exeter Book
B) The Vercelli Book
C) The Junius Manuscript
D) The Domesday Book

Answer: D) The Domesday Book

22. What is the central theme of The Seafarer?

A) Heroic battles
B) The hardships of life at sea and spiritual longing
C) A journey to a mythical land
D) The glory of kings

Answer: B) The hardships of life at sea and spiritual longing

23. In Old English poetry, what is a scop?

A) A noble warrior
B) A court poet or bard
C) A religious figure
D) A type of weapon

Answer: B) A court poet or bard

24. What does the term wyrd signify in Old English literature?

A) Fate or destiny
B) Courage in battle
C) The afterlife
D) Religious devotion

Answer: A) Fate or destiny

25. Which Old English poem is an elegy about a lone speaker lamenting the loss of his lord and his former life?

A) The Seafarer
B) The Wanderer
C) The Ruin
D) The Battle of Brunanburh

Answer: B) The Wanderer

26. What type of literature dominates Old English writing?

A) Love stories
B) Religious and heroic poetry
C) Satirical works
D) Dramatic plays

Answer: B) Religious and heroic poetry

27. Who is Grendel in Beowulf?

A) A wise king
B) A ferocious monster descended from Cain
C) A loyal companion to Beowulf
D) A dragon guarding treasure

Answer: B) A ferocious monster descended from Cain

28. What significant contribution did Alfred the Great make to Old English literature?

A) He authored Beowulf
B) He translated Latin works into Old English
C) He compiled The Exeter Book
D) He composed riddles and elegies

Answer: B) He translated Latin works into Old English

29. The heroic code in Beowulf values which of the following the most?

A) Wealth and material possessions
B) Fame, loyalty, and bravery
C) Spiritual devotion
D) Artistic expression

Answer: B) Fame, loyalty, and bravery

30. Which Old English work celebrates the victory of King Aethelstan over the Scots and Vikings in 937?

A) The Wanderer
B) The Battle of Brunanburh
C) The Seafarer
D) The Dream of the Rood

Answer: B) The Battle of Brunanburh

31. What type of poem is Deor's Lament?

A) A religious hymn
B) An elegy of a scop reflecting on his misfortunes
C) A heroic epic
D) A historical chronicle

Answer: B) An elegy of a scop reflecting on his misfortunes

32. What significant event influenced the Christian themes in Old English literature?

A) The Roman Conquest of Britain
B) The Synod of Whitby (664 AD)
C) The Norman Conquest
D) The Battle of Hastings

Answer: B) The Synod of Whitby (664 AD)

33. Which Old English riddle is often interpreted as describing a book or a Bible?

A) Riddle 1
B) Riddle 26
C) Riddle 47
D) Riddle 60

Answer: B) Riddle 26

34. What kind of allegory is The Phoenix, an Old English poem?

A) A political allegory
B) A Christian allegory of resurrection
C) A mythical tale of creation
D) A satirical critique of kingship

Answer: B) A Christian allegory of resurrection

35. What is the main subject of The Ruin, an Old English poem?

A) The loss of a beloved leader
B) The remains of a Roman city
C) The destruction caused by the Viking invasions
D) A philosophical reflection on death

Answer: B) The remains of a Roman city

36. Which Old English prose work is attributed to King Alfred the Great?

A) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
B) Beowulf
C) The Ecclesiastical History of the English People
D) The Battle of Maldon

Answer: A) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

37. What was the function of riddles in Old English literature?

A) Entertainment and intellectual challenge
B) Religious instruction
C) Historical documentation
D) Satirical critique

Answer: A) Entertainment and intellectual challenge

38. The Exeter Book contains what types of literature?

A) Heroic epics
B) Religious sermons
C) Riddles, elegies, and religious poetry
D) Historical chronicles

Answer: C) Riddles, elegies, and religious poetry

39. What is significant about Beowulf’s final battle?

A) It symbolizes the inevitability of death
B) It highlights Beowulf's betrayal by his men
C) It marks the beginning of Beowulf's kingship
D) It represents the ultimate triumph of good over evil

Answer: A) It symbolizes the inevitability of death

40. Which language influenced Old English the most during the Christianization of Britain?

A) Old Norse
B) Latin
C) Celtic
D) French

Answer: B) Latin

41. What is the significance of The Venerable Bede in Old English literature?

A) He composed Beowulf.
B) He introduced the use of rhyme in poetry.
C) He wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
D) He created riddles and allegories.

Answer: C) He wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.

42. What is the Old English term for "fate" that plays a central role in many poems?

A) Wergild
B) Wyrd
C) Mead
D) Cyning

Answer: B) Wyrd

43. Which character in Beowulf is associated with a dragon?

A) Hrothgar
B) Grendel
C) Beowulf
D) Wiglaf

Answer: C) Beowulf

44. What is the primary focus of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle?

A) Heroic tales
B) Historical events in England
C) Religious teachings
D) Laws and customs

Answer: B) Historical events in England

45. Which work in Old English literature is an example of a heroic elegy?

A) The Wanderer
B) The Dream of the Rood
C) Beowulf
D) The Phoenix

Answer: A) The Wanderer

46. What is a "mead-hall" in the context of Beowulf?

A) A battlefield
B) A king’s court and communal gathering place
C) A temple for religious ceremonies
D) A treasure vault

Answer: B) A king’s court and communal gathering place

47. Who is Wiglaf in Beowulf?

A) Beowulf’s king
B) Beowulf’s loyal follower who aids him in his final battle
C) Grendel’s brother
D) A rival warrior from another kingdom

Answer: B) Beowulf’s loyal follower who aids him in his final battle

48. Which poetic device is most prominently used in Old English poetry?

A) Simile
B) Alliteration
C) Rhyme
D) Personification

Answer: B) Alliteration

49. What is the subject of the Old English poem Wulf and Eadwacer?

A) A lament for a lost lover
B) A heroic battle
C) A religious conversion
D) A journey to a sacred place

Answer: A) A lament for a lost lover

50. What does the term kenning refer to in Old English poetry?

A) A heroic code
B) A poetic compound metaphor
C) A narrative form
D) A religious symbol

Answer: B) A poetic compound metaphor

51. Which character is NOT a part of the Beowulf epic?

A) Grendel
B) Hrothgar
C) Eowyn
D) Wiglaf

Answer: C) Eowyn

52. What kind of literary work is Beowulf?

A) An epic poem
B) A religious allegory
C) A historical chronicle
D) A lyrical ballad

Answer: A) An epic poem

53. What is the primary conflict in Beowulf?

A) The struggle between paganism and Christianity
B) The hero’s battles against monsters like Grendel and the dragon
C) The rivalry between different Anglo-Saxon tribes
D) The search for a lost kingdom

Answer: B) The hero’s battles against monsters like Grendel and the dragon

54. Which of the following is NOT a theme of Old English poetry?

A) Heroism
B) Loyalty to one’s lord
C) Romantic love
D) The fleeting nature of life

Answer: C) Romantic love

55. What is The Battle of Maldon about?

A) The struggle between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings
B) A legendary Anglo-Saxon hero’s adventures
C) The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity
D) A lament for a fallen king

Answer: A) The struggle between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings

56. What is the significance of the Junius Manuscript?

A) It contains Beowulf.
B) It includes religious poetry like Genesis and Exodus.
C) It is a historical record of Anglo-Saxon kings.
D) It is a collection of riddles.

Answer: B) It includes religious poetry like Genesis and Exodus.

57. What role does scop play in Old English society?

A) Warrior
B) Poet and historian
C) Priest
D) Farmer

Answer: B) Poet and historian

58. What is the central theme of The Ruin?

A) Heroic deeds of a warrior
B) The decay of a once-great city
C) The joys of religious salvation
D) A philosophical reflection on death

Answer: B) The decay of a once-great city

59. What does "wergild" mean in Old English?

A) A form of currency
B) Compensation paid for a killing or injury
C) A warrior’s shield
D) A type of weapon

Answer: B) Compensation paid for a killing or injury

60. What is Caedmon’s Hymn about?

A) The heroism of a legendary king
B) The praise of God as the Creator
C) A lament for lost traditions
D) The adventures of an Anglo-Saxon warrior

Answer: B) The praise of God as the Creator

Important  notes on Indian English novelist Jhumpa Lahiri 

Personal Background

• Full Name: Nilanjana Sudeshna "Jhumpa" Lahiri.
• Birth: Born on July 11, 1967, in London, England, to Bengali immigrant parents from India.
• Nationality:
  • British by birth, American by upbringing, and later Italian by immersion.
• Family:
  • Her father was a librarian, and her mother was a teacher.
  • Married to Alberto Vourvoulias-Bush, a journalist, and they have two children.
• Education:
  • Bachelor's degree in English Literature from Barnard College.
  • Master’s degrees in English, Creative Writing, and Comparative Literature from Boston University.
  • Ph.D. in Renaissance Studies from Boston University.

Literary Career

Jhumpa Lahiri is a Pulitzer Prize-winning author known for exploring themes of immigration, identity, and cultural dislocation. Her works often delve into the lives of Bengali immigrants in the West.

Major Works

1. Short Stories

• Interpreter of Maladies (1999):
  • A debut collection of nine short stories.
  • Themes: Indian-American experiences, marital tensions, and cultural clashes.
  • Won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (2000).
  • Notable stories:
    • A Temporary Matter: A couple confronts their grief over a stillbirth.
    • When Mr. Pirzada Came to Dine: A child observes cultural differences through a family friend.
    • The Third and Final Continent: A humorous and poignant account of an immigrant’s adaptation.

2. Novels

• The Namesake (2003):

  • A novel about Gogol Ganguli, the son of Bengali immigrants, grappling with his cultural identity.
  • Explores generational conflicts and the challenges of assimilation.
  • Adapted into a critically acclaimed film by Mira Nair in 2006.

• The Lowland (2013):

  • A historical family saga set in India and the U.S.
  • Themes: Naxalite movement, loss, and family bonds.
  • Shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize and the National Book Award.
  • In this novel, the female protagonist Gauri falls in love with and marries Udayan Mitra.
  • Udayan is caught up in the banned Naxalite movement and is eventually killed by the police in stark views of his parents and wife.
  • Throughout the novel Gauri is haunted by the memories of her first husband.

• Whereabouts (2021):

  • Originally written in Italian (Dove mi trovo) and later translated by Lahiri herself.
  • A sparse, introspective novel about a woman’s solitary life in an unnamed city.

3. Non-Fiction

• In Other Words (2016):

  • A memoir written in Italian (In Altre Parole), chronicling her journey of learning and writing in a new language.
  • Themes: Language, exile, and identity.

• Translating Myself and Others (2022):

  • A collection of essays on her experiences as a writer and translator, exploring linguistic identity and translation challenges.

4. Translations

• Lahiri has translated works from Italian to English, such as The Penguin Book of Italian Short Stories (2019), which she curated and edited.

Themes in Lahiri’s Work

• Identity and Displacement:

  • Focuses on immigrant families, especially the Bengali-American diaspora.
  • Explores the duality of cultural belonging and alienation.

• Family and Relationships:

  • Examines generational conflicts and evolving family dynamics.
  • Love, marriage, and loss are recurring motifs.

• Cultural Clashes:

  • Highlights the struggles of assimilating into a foreign culture while preserving one’s roots.

• Language and Communication:

  • Explores how language shapes identity and relationships.

Awards and Honors

• Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (2000) for Interpreter of Maladies.
• Frank O’Connor International Short Story Award (2008) for Unaccustomed Earth.
• National Humanities Medal (2014) from the U.S. government.
• Man Booker Prize Finalist (2013) for The Lowland.
• Pen/Hemingway Award for Debut Fiction (2000) for Interpreter of Maladies.

Writing Style

• Simple, elegant, and precise prose.
• Rich in cultural and emotional depth.
• Masterful use of symbolism and metaphors.
• Focus on small, intimate details that evoke universal emotions.

Interesting Facts

• The nickname "Jhumpa" was given by her teacher, as her formal name was difficult to pronounce.
• Her fascination with Italy and the Italian language led her to relocate to Rome and write extensively in Italian.
• She has been a professor of Creative Writing at Princeton University and a director of Princeton's Program in Creative Writing.
• Her writing often reflects her personal experiences as a child of immigrants navigating two cultures.

Jhumpa Lahiri’s works have made significant contributions to contemporary literature, particularly in exploring the complexities of immigration, identity, and cultural transitions. Her journey into writing in a foreign language adds a unique dimension to her literary repertoire, solidifying her status as an influential global author.

 Important notes on Indian English writer Vikram Seth.

Personal Background

• Birth: Vikram Seth was born on June 20, 1952, in Kolkata (Calcutta), India.
• Family: His father, Prem Seth, was an executive in the Bata Shoe Company, and his mother, Leila Seth, was the first woman Chief Justice of a High Court in India.
• Education:
  • Studied at The Doon School, Dehradun.
  • Graduated from Corpus Christi College, Oxford, with a degree in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics (PPE).
  • Pursued postgraduate studies in Economics at Stanford University.
  • Studied classical Chinese poetry at Nanjing University in China. Vikram Seth is an Indian poet and a novelist.

Literary Career

Vikram Seth is a versatile writer who excels in both prose and poetry. His works are celebrated for their breadth, depth, and musicality.

Major Works

1. Novels

• A Suitable Boy (1993):

  • One of the longest novels in English, with over 1,300 pages.
  • A sweeping epic set in post-independence India, focusing on the lives of four families and the protagonist Lata Mehra's search for a suitable husband.
  • Explores themes of politics, religion, love, and social change.
  • Lata finally finds Haresh as a suitable boy.

• An Equal Music (1999):

  • A story centered on a violinist named Michael Holme and his unfulfilled love for pianist Julia McNicholl.
  • Known for its intricate portrayal of Western classical music.

• The Golden Gate (1986):

  • A novel written entirely in verse, using the rhyming tetrameter of Eugene Onegin by Alexander Pushkin.
  • Set in California, it captures the lives of young professionals in San Francisco.
  • It brought Seth, Sahitya Akademi Award in 1988.
  • Protagonist -John Brown

• A Suitable Girl (forthcoming):

  • A sequel to A Suitable Boy, set in modern-day India.

2. Poetry

• Mappings (1980): Seth's first published work, exploring themes of identity and self-discovery.
• The Humble Administrator’s Garden (1985): Divided into three sections, it reflects on Seth’s travels in India, China, and California.
• All You Who Sleep Tonight (1990): A collection of poems about love, loss, and longing.
• Beastly tales(1991]
• Three Chinese Poets (1992): Translations of Chinese poetry by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu.
• The Frog and the Nightingale (1994)
• Summer Requiem (2015): A deeply introspective collection reflecting on the passage of time and mortality.
• 
  

3. Non-Fiction

• From Heaven Lake: Travels Through Sinkiang and Tibet (1983):
  • A travelogue based on Seth's journey hitchhiking from China to India.
  • Offers a vivid depiction of landscapes and cultures.

Themes in Seth’s Work

• Exploration of human relationships, love, and longing.
• Deep cultural and historical insights into Indian society.
• Celebration of music, art, and poetry.
• Cross-cultural experiences, inspired by his travels and education.

Awards and Honors

• Padma Shri (2007): Awarded by the Government of India.
• WH Smith Literary Award (1994) for A Suitable Boy.
• Commonwealth Writers’ Prize (1986) for The Golden Gate.
• Princeton University’s E.M. Forster Award for distinguished prose achievement.

Writing Style

• Known for his versatility across genres and forms.
• Uses a lyrical and fluid narrative style, blending prose and poetry.
• Strong character development and detailed cultural contexts.

Interesting Facts

• Vikram Seth is also a musician, proficient in playing the flute and the cello.
• Openly identifies as bisexual and has spoken about the struggles of being part of the LGBTQ+ community in India.
• Took a hiatus from writing due to legal disputes with his publishers but remains one of the most respected writers of contemporary Indian literature.

Legacy

Vikram Seth's works are a testament to his mastery of language and his ability to traverse cultures, genres, and emotions. His contributions have enriched Indian English literature, making him a global literary icon.

Thematic Significance of "Tolerant Soil" and "Childlike Submissiveness" in Jayanta Mahapatra's Grass

Jayanta Mahapatra’s Grass is a contemplative poem that examines themes of mortality, resilience, and the continuity of life. The motifs of "tolerant soil" and "childlike submissiveness" hold profound thematic significance, reflecting the speaker's meditations on the inevitability of death, the persistence of nature, and the acceptance of human vulnerability.

"Tolerant Soil"

• Symbol of Endurance:
  The “tolerant soil” symbolizes nature’s ability to endure and renew itself despite the destruction caused by human actions. It absorbs the remnants of history—graves, ruins, and bloodshed—and allows life to continue. This tolerance signifies the soil's silent acceptance of mortality and decay, mirroring the resilience of grass, which grows over the dead.

• Connection to Mortality:
  The soil serves as a reminder of the inevitability of death and the transient nature of human life. It tolerates the weight of history and suffering, embodying nature’s indifference to human struggles.

• Personal Struggle:
  For the speaker, the “tolerant soil” may reflect an internal struggle to come to terms with personal loss, guilt, or grief. Just as the soil absorbs and transforms death into life, the speaker grapples with accepting life’s impermanence and moving forward.

"Childlike Submissiveness"

• Symbol of Vulnerability:
  The phrase "childlike submissiveness" conveys an attitude of surrender to life’s uncontrollable forces, much like a child submits to authority or fate. It reflects the speaker’s realization that resistance to the inevitability of death and change is futile.

• Theme of Acceptance:
  This submissiveness is not a sign of weakness but a recognition of life’s natural cycle. The speaker identifies with the grass, which grows unassumingly and accepts its role in the larger scheme of life and death.

• Connection to Personal Reflection:
  The “childlike submissiveness” may parallel the speaker’s personal journey toward humility and acceptance. It reflects an emotional surrender to the truths of mortality and the recognition that human struggles are part of a larger, impersonal order governed by nature.

 Relation to the Speaker’s Personal Struggles and Reflections

• Meditations on Mortality:
  Both the "tolerant soil" and "childlike submissiveness" underscore the speaker's engagement with death and impermanence. The speaker reflects on how the grass and soil quietly persist in the face of historical and personal tragedy, offering a model for endurance.

• Reconciliation with Loss:
  The imagery suggests that the speaker seeks reconciliation with personal grief, finding solace in the idea that life continues beyond individual suffering. Just as the grass grows back over graves, the speaker acknowledges the possibility of healing and renewal.

• Universal Connection:
  The themes link the speaker’s struggles to a broader human condition. The soil and grass serve as metaphors for how humanity must accept its place in the cycle of life, death, and regeneration. This acceptance allows the speaker to reflect on their own insignificance and find peace in surrendering to nature’s inevitability.

Conclusion

The "tolerant soil" and "childlike submissiveness" in Grass symbolize nature's resilience and humanity's need for humility in the face of mortality. They reflect the speaker’s journey toward accepting personal struggles, loss, and the transient nature of existence. By embracing these themes, Mahapatra connects individual grief to universal truths, offering a meditative perspective on life and death.

Analysis of Mortality in John Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale and Jayanta Mahapatra’s Grass

Both John Keats and Jayanta Mahapatra explore the theme of mortality in their poems, but their approaches differ significantly due to cultural, historical, and philosophical perspectives. While Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale reflects a Romantic fascination with beauty, transience, and escapism, Mahapatra’s Grass takes a more grounded, existential approach rooted in Indian cultural and historical consciousness.

1. Mortality in Ode to a Nightingale

In Keats’s poem, mortality is central to the speaker's reflections on life and the desire to transcend its inevitable sorrows.

• Romantic Ideals: Keats sees mortality as a painful aspect of human existence, contrasting it with the eternal song of the nightingale. The bird symbolizes a timeless, otherworldly beauty that offers an escape from the decay and suffering of life.
• Escapism vs. Reality: The speaker dreams of merging with the nightingale’s eternal world through death, imagining it as a release:

  "Now more than ever seems it rich to die,
  To cease upon the midnight with no pain."
  However, he ultimately recognizes that such an escape is illusory, and the nightingale’s immortality is only a poetic construct.

• Personal Context: Keats, who faced illness and the loss of loved ones, imbues the poem with a personal longing for relief from the pain of life, making his meditation on mortality deeply emotional and subjective.

2. Mortality in Grass

Jayanta Mahapatra’s Grass takes a more stoic and philosophical approach to mortality, rooted in Indian cultural and historical sensibilities.

• Symbolism of Grass: Grass in Mahapatra’s poem symbolizes both fragility and resilience. It grows over graves and historical ruins, embodying the cycle of life, death, and renewal. Mortality is not seen as an end but as a part of nature’s eternal process.
• Collective Mortality: Mahapatra reflects on historical suffering and collective human mortality, evoking the memory of violence, colonialism, and death. This contrasts with Keats’s more personal and introspective focus.
• Acceptance of Death: Unlike Keats’s yearning to transcend mortality, Mahapatra accepts it as a natural and inevitable truth. Grass becomes a silent witness to human transience, signifying the continuity of life beyond individual deaths.

3. Comparative Analysis

4. Conclusion

Keats and Mahapatra approach mortality from different vantage points. Keats, as a Romantic poet, views it as a painful limitation that art and imagination temporarily transcend, while Mahapatra’s existential lens sees death as an integral part of the natural and historical cycle. Both poets, however, underscore the inevitability of mortality, enriching their works with profound reflections on life and death.

Comparative Study of Sonnets by Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, are pivotal figures in English poetry, credited with introducing the sonnet form to England. They adapted the Petrarchan sonnet for an English audience and influenced the development of the English (or Shakespearean) sonnet. Despite their shared contributions, their styles and thematic approaches exhibit notable differences.

Similarities Between Wyatt and Surrey’s Sonnets

1. Influence of Petrarch:

   • Both poets drew inspiration from the Italian poet Petrarch. Their sonnets often deal with themes of unrequited love, inner conflict, and human frailty.
   • They adapted Petrarch’s sonnet form to English, experimenting with rhyme schemes to suit the vernacular.

2. Exploration of Love and Courtly Themes:

   • Both poets explored the complexities of love, particularly its pain and unfulfilled longing.
   • Their sonnets reflect the conventions of courtly love, including admiration for an idealized, unattainable woman.

3. Use of Symbolism and Allegory:

   • Wyatt and Surrey both employed rich imagery and allegorical elements to express emotional depth and personal struggles.

4. Early English Renaissance Poetics:

   • As poets in King Henry VIII’s court, both reflected the intellectual and artistic ideals of the Renaissance, blending classical influences with personal expression.

Differences Between Wyatt and Surrey’s Sonnets

Examples of Sonnets

1. Sir Thomas Wyatt – "Whoso List to Hunt"

   • Theme: The unattainability of love, possibly referencing his rumored relationship with Anne Boleyn.
   • Imagery: The metaphor of hunting a deer represents the pursuit of love, with the phrase "Noli me tangere" (Do not touch me) symbolizing forbidden love.
   • Tone: Cynical and resigned, reflecting the futility of his pursuit.

2. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey – "Love, That Doth Reign and Live Within My Thought"

   • Theme: The nobility of love, inspired by a Petrarchan sonnet.
   • Imagery: The allegory of love as a king living in the poet’s heart, with martial metaphors portraying love’s struggles.
   • Tone: Chivalric and idealistic, emphasizing loyalty and honor in love.

Critical Comparison

• Emotional Depth vs. Artistic Refinement: Wyatt’s poetry is often seen as emotionally intense, while Surrey’s work is praised for its technical mastery and poetic elegance.
• Historical and Personal Context: Wyatt’s experiences in King Henry VIII’s tumultuous court influenced his darker, more cynical tone. In contrast, Surrey’s noble lineage and chivalric ideals shaped his more optimistic outlook.
• Influence on English Poetry: Wyatt introduced the sonnet, but Surrey’s development of the English sonnet form had a greater impact on later poets like Shakespeare and Sidney.

Conclusion

Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, laid the foundation for the English Renaissance sonnet. While Wyatt introduced the form with raw emotion and introspection, Surrey refined it with elegance and structural innovation. Together, their works represent the dual legacy of emotional resonance and formal perfection in early English poetry.

 The Recent War Situation: A Reflection through War Literature

War has always been a catalyst for profound change—social, political, and psychological. Whether it’s a local skirmish or a global conflict, war leaves an indelible mark on societies and individuals. In contemporary times, the echoes of war resonate not only through headlines but also through the voices of writers who document, critique, and reflect upon these turbulent times. War literature, a genre that delves into the complexities of conflict, offers invaluable insights into the human experience during wartime. Through the lens of recent global conflicts, we can understand how war continues to shape our world, as well as how literature provides solace, critique, and understanding.

The Ongoing Wars of Our Time

In recent years, we have witnessed several ongoing and escalating conflicts that have caught global attention. The war in Ukraine, sparked by Russia’s invasion in February 2022, has been one of the most devastating events of the 21st century. With images of destruction and millions displaced, the war has reminded the world of the brutal consequences of unchecked military aggression. Similarly, the war in Yemen, often referred to as the "forgotten war," continues to rage, resulting in a dire humanitarian crisis. In the midst of these conflicts, the voices of those directly affected are being heard more than ever—through social media, news outlets, and, importantly, literature.

The Role of War Literature

War literature serves not only as a historical record but as a medium for emotional and intellectual engagement with the horrors of war. Writers, both combatants and civilians, have used their pens to express the profound psychological scars that war leaves behind. For example, consider the novels and poetry of the 20th century, which are still relevant today.

1. Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1929):
This classic novel set during World War I captures the brutal realities of trench warfare. It offers an intimate look at the disillusionment and trauma soldiers face, providing a raw and unflinching depiction of the horror and futility of war. Though set in the past, Remarque's work remains relevant in understanding the universal costs of conflict. The film adaptation of All Quiet on the Western Front in 2022 brought these timeless themes back into focus, striking a chord with modern audiences and showing how war continues to reshape lives across generations.

2. Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried (1990):
In the realm of modern war literature, O’Brien’s collection of short stories about the Vietnam War stands as a powerful narrative of both physical and emotional survival. The book is a testament to how soldiers carry the weight of war—not only in terms of the equipment they physically carry but also in the intangible burdens of fear, grief, and guilt. O’Brien’s exploration of memory and trauma is still highly relevant for veterans of contemporary wars, offering insight into the long-lasting impact of combat experiences.

3. Svetlana Alexievich's War's Unwomanly Face (1983):
Svetlana Alexievich, a Belarusian journalist and Nobel laureate, provides an entirely different perspective on war in this oral history of Soviet women who served during World War II. Through interviews with these women, Alexievich illuminates the psychological and emotional toll that war took on them. Her work highlights the untold stories of women in war, who have often been overshadowed by male-dominated narratives. This humanizing approach can be applied to the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, where women, as both soldiers and civilians, bear a significant portion of the burden.

Literature Reflecting the Current Global Context

The wars of today have sparked a new generation of writers, many of whom have lived through or been affected by these conflicts. The experience of war, particularly in terms of displacement and trauma, is now being explored in literature more than ever.

1. "The Beekeeper of Aleppo" by Christy Lefteri (2019):
This novel focuses on the Syrian refugee crisis, which remains one of the most pressing issues of the 21st century. The book tells the story of Nuri, a beekeeper, who flees Syria with his wife to escape the war. The narrative is a poignant reflection on the struggles of refugees, the psychological wounds of war, and the longing for home. Lefteri’s novel shows how war extends beyond the battlefield, affecting people long after they leave their homeland.

2. The Night in Day by Agha Shahid Ali (2021):
Agha Shahid Ali’s poetry, especially his works written about the conflict in Kashmir, showcases the sorrow and displacement that arises from territorial wars. His collection is not just about the horrors of the conflict, but the deep personal loss and the erosion of a sense of identity and belonging. Poetry such as his helps convey the emotional and psychological effects of war, where words become an act of resistance and remembrance.

Conclusion: The Power of War Literature

War literature serves as a necessary antidote to the sanitized versions of war we often see in the media and official narratives. By presenting personal stories and emotions, it humanizes those who suffer through conflict and challenges readers to confront uncomfortable truths. In today’s wars—whether in Ukraine, Yemen, Syria, or elsewhere—the voices of those affected continue to resonate through literature. These works not only bear witness to the horrors of war but also provide insight into resilience, survival, and the ways in which people rebuild in the aftermath.

War literature reminds us that while wars may fade from the headlines, their impact endures—through stories, voices, and memories that refuse to be silenced. It is through these works that we continue to learn from the past and strive for a more peaceful future.

 Michael Madhusudan Dutta ( 1824- 1873) 

★ He was a popular Bengali poet and dramatist.

★ He was a pioneer of Bengali drama.

★He is also considered as a father of Bengali sonnets.

★ His famous work "Maghnad Bodh Kavya" is a tragic epic.

Important works: 

1) Tilottamma (1860) 

2) Meghnad Bodh Kavya( ballad of Meghnad's Demise; 1861) 

These notes are very important for NTA NET, SET and others examination.

 Toru Dutt(1856-1877) 

★ Toru Dutt was an Indian poet who wrote in English and French.

★ Her father was Gobind Chandra Dutt, Sister Aru Dutt and brother Abju Dutt.Their family became Christian in 1852.

★ She died at a very young age of 21. 

★ She was born in Calcutta. She was a poet, novelist and translator. She translated some sonnets of de Cramont and regarded him as one of the best modern French poets.

★ She is considered as the "First English writing women of India".

★ Edmund Goose wrote about her that " she brought with her from Europe a store of knowledge that would have sufficed to make an English or French girl seemed learning."

Important works : 

1) Our Casurina Tree

2) Tree of Life

3) The Lotus 

4) Bougmaree

5) France

6) Amon Pere

7) Le Journel De Medmoiselle d'Arvers ( 1879).  This is the first novel in French by an Indian writer. 

8) Bianca or the Young Spanish Maiden ( 1879). It is the first novel in English by an Indian writer.

These notes are very important for NTA NET, SET and others examination.

Shashi Deshpande (1938-2016)

> Shashi Despande is an award winning Indian novelist. She is a recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award for the novel "That Long Silence" in 1990. 

>She was born in "Karnataka" and known as 'Daughter of Kannada'. >She published her first collection of short stories in 1978 and her first novel "the dark holds no terror "in 1980

 > She was awarded Padma Shri in 2009.

 >Her novel Shadow Play was shortlisted for The Hindu Literary Prize in 2014.

>She has written 4 children books, 9 novels and a number of short stories and essays. >In 2015, she resigned from her position on the Sahitya Akademi General Council and returned her Sahitya Akademi Award.

>She joined the protest against Akademi's perceived inaction and silence on the murder of M. M. Kalburgi.

>Shashi Deshpande denied accepting that she is a feminist writer by saying "I don't like to call myself a feminist writer. I say I am a feminist but I don't write to propagate an ism".

Important works of Deshpande:

1) The Dark Holds No Terror ( 1980) 

2) If I die Today (1982)

3) Come Up and Be Dead (1989)

4) That Long Silence: The Unavoidable Silence of an Indian Woman (1989)

5) Small Remedies (2000)

6) In the Country of Deceit (2008)

7) Roots and Shadows (1973)

Children Books:

1) A Summer Adventure 

2) The Hidden Treasure

 3)  The Only Witness 

4)  The Narayanpur Incident (1995)

 Sri Aurobindo( 1872- 1950)

>Sri Aurobindo (Aurobindo Ghose) was an Indian nationalist, philosopher, yogi, guru and poet.

>He introduced his visions on human progress and spiritual evolution. He was imprisoned by the British for writing articles against British rule in India. 

>His main literary works are "The Life Divine" which deals with theoretical aspects of Integral Yoga Savitri: a Legend and a Symbol an Epic Poem which refers to passage in The Mahabahatra where characters actualize integral yoga in their lives.

>His works also include Philosophy, poetry, translations and commentaries on Vedas, Upnishads and Bhagavad Gita.

>He was nominated for the Noble Prize for literature in 1943 and for Peace Prize in 1950.

> He started a monthly philosophical magazine called “Arya”. 

> Letters on Yoga appeared in 3 volumes.

➤ The American philosopher Ken Wilber has called Aurobindo "India's greatest modern philosopher sage".

Important Works of Aurobindo

1) Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol

It is an epic poem in blank verse based upon the theology of Mahabharata.

2) The Life Divine

3) The Synthesis of Yoga

4) Hymus to the Mystic Fire

> Famous Quote by Sri Aurobindo:

"The voice of poetry comes from a region above us, a plane of our being above and beyond our personal intelligence".

 Ruskin Bond ( 1934-) 

>Ruskin bond is an Indian author of British descent. 

>The Indian Council of Child Education, has recognized his role in the growth of children's literature in India. 

>He got Sahitya Akademi Award in the year 1992, for "Our Trees Still Grow in Dehra", his published works in English. It contains 14 stories.

 >He was awarded Padma Shree Award in the year 1999 and Padma Bhusan in 2014.

>Bond said: "The past is always with us, for it feeds the present".

>Bond's "A Fight of Pigeons" novel set in 1857 about Ruth Labadoor and her family of Hindus and Muslims is adapted into film "Junoon".

Important Works of Ruskin Bond

1) The Room of the Roof (1956)

2) The Blue Umbrella (1974)

3) The Night Train at Deoli and Other Stories (1988)

 4) The Best of Ruskin Bond (2000) 

 5) Our Trees still Grow in Dehra (1991)

 6) Out of Darkness (Lyrical Poem)

These notes are very important for NTA NET, SET and others examination. 

 Toru Dutta ( 1856-1877) 

> Toru Dutt was an Indian poet who wrote in English and French.

> She died at a very young age of 21. She was a poet, novelist and translator. She was born in Calcutta.

> She translated some sonnets of de Cramont and regarded him as one of the best modern French poets. 

> She is considered as the "First English writing women of India".

 > Edmund goose wrote about her that "she brought with her from Europe a store of knowledge that would have sufliced to make an English or French girl seemed learned."

Most important Works of Toru Dutt: 

>Our Casurina Tree

>Tree of life

> The Lotus

> Bougmaree

> France

> Amon Pere  :It is praised world-wide and considered "faultless". 

> Le Journel De Medmoiselle d'Arvers (1879)

*This is the first novel in French by an Indian writer.

* It was published poshtumously.

> Bianca, or the Young Spanish Maiden ( 1879) 

* It is the first novel in English by an Indian writer. 

 Important Literary Terms for students of  WBCSSC, NET, SET

Anti-sentimental comedy

This type of comedy basically comes as a kind of protest against the sentimental drama. It discarded the sentimental elements like overdose of pathos, note of seriousness and moral purpose. Instead, such comedies try to produce hearty or often hilarious laughter. Ex. - Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer.

Absurd Drama

Absurd drama is a new invention in the mid 20th century in the field of theatre. This kind of drama is based upon the belief that the human condition is essentially and ineradicably absurd, and that this condition can be adequately represented only in this kind of play. Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot, Malone Dies, The Unnamable are examples of Absurd drama.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity in literature can be called the language of paradox. It is the assertion of the union of opposites. True poem, like Keats" "Ode on a Grecian Urn", is an amalgamation of varied experiences, widely different from and even opposite to each other. Here ambiguity or paradox synthesizes and reconciles these experiences. Keats in this odc expresses a life which is above life, but it is at the same time a kind of death.

Autobiographical Essay

When in the essay the author will speak out his vital experiences of life, either external or emotional, it will become autobiographical. That means, in such essay the personal or subjective elements must be much more strongly present. Ex: Dream Children: A Reverie by Charles Lamb.

Personal Essay

In this kind of essay the author brings out his personality in much more bolder details than in the formal essays or any other kind. The author assumes a tone of intimacy with the readers, deals with everyday matters in a relaxed, self-revelatory fashion. It is also called familiar essay. By nature it is subjective to a great extent.